Writer and Geek Show

Clocks and watches are devine! We talk about how humans felt need for timekeeping and all about it.

Coffee is the beverage of champions. We talk about how coffee is extracted and other stuff related to coffee.

World runs on coffee Coffee is one of the most popular beverages on the planet alongside water and tea. It is the second most traded commodity after oil. Coffee has also given rise to a culture of coffee shops or coffee houses which seems to be a recent phenomenon. But are they really a thing of 21st century or do they have some history? Let’s find out. Beverage of choice Coffee is a magical drink of choice. Its ever-increasing popularity can be attributed to its versatility and of course Caffeine the magic alkaloid that gives you bliss as you sip your coffee down. The coffee plant originated in Africa Two different variety of Coffee: Arabica: The more popular and expensive variety, this is considered to be milder and more flavourful. The bean is flatter and elongated and requires a cool sub-tropical climate. Typically grows around the elevation ranging from 2000 - 6500 ft where it needs sun, moisture and shade. Largest producers of Arabica are Latin America, Asia, Arabia and East Africa. Robusta: This is cheaper to produce but has almost twice the quantity of caffeine than the Arabica coffee. Robusta beans are rounder and can grow at lower altitudes (sea level - 2000 ft.). Central and Western Africa, South East Asia and Brazil are the leading producers of Robusta. History of Coffee Coffee plants grew in the wild in the area called Kefa or Kaffa in Ethiopia. These plants were taken to Arabia and cultivated around the 15th century. Legend is attributed to a goatherd by the name Kaldi who noticed that his heard started behaving weirdly after eating certain berries. He tasted them and felt ecstatic as well. He made coffee popular according to the legend. Since it was an intoxicating drink, Islam forbade drinking coffee since such drinks are prohibited by Quran. Despite the risk, coffee lovers grew in leaps and bounds within Arabia and drink became popular. This paved way for the creation of “Coffeehouses” called Qahveh Khanehs and gave rise to the coffee house culture. They first appeared in Mecca around the 15th century and were popular places to catch up with friends. Coffee came to Europe around 16th and 17th centuries and spread across Europe. Some countries prohibited coffee stating they are magical potions. Coffee houses became popular in Britain and British colonies by 17th century. Yemen was almost the only supplier of coffee until the close of 17th century. But the popularity of the beverage took it all the way to Java in Indonesia and Americas along with Hawaii (since 1825). By 20th century Brazil became a leading producer and exporter of Coffee. In 19th and 20th centuries, coffee machines came into existence and various new methods of producing coffee came into being. Instant coffee came into popularity and production was perfected post-1950 leading to the increased production of Robusta. Caffeine - the magical ingredient Caffeine is an alkaloid which is present in coffee, tea, cocoa and in some other nuts and berries. It normally is a white powder highly soluble in hot water. Caffeine stimulates central nervous system, heart and kidneys. It is also a mild diuretic (removes urine). Used as an antidote to respiratory depression caused by overdose. Negative effects: Insomnia, anxiety, irritation etc. Positive effects: Increased alertness and improved motor performance. Decaffeinated coffee became popular to control the amount of coffee in the system. Production of coffee Coffee cherries contain coffee beans, usually two. Single beaned berries are called pea beans and are said to be sweeter and flavourful. Beans are separated from the berries and the dried to reduce the moisture content from 65-70% down to 12-13%. Three techniques are used for processing coffee: Dry method: In this process, the berries are placed under the sun on concrete or brick patios. This is the simplest way of processing and is least expensive. Practised in areas with dry and warm climate like Ethiopia and Brazil. The berries are raked to move them around and to prevent fermentation. The process takes few days to around four weeks. Overdrying breaks the coffee and underlying causes fungi and other bacteria attack. Once dried, the coffee beans are separated by machinery. Wet method: This method produces better quality coffee and requires much more sophisticated equipment than the dry method. The skin and the pulp are removed using a pulping machine that uses a rotating drum. The thin layer of pulp that still remains is removed by fermentation that happens over three days as the wet seeds are kept in tanks. Remaining pulp is washed off and the beans are dried under the sun or by passing hot air. Pulped natural process: In this third way of processing, the pulp is removed mechanically but there is no intermediate fermentation and the remaining pulp is removed once the beans dry off. This is a combination of dry and wet techniques. The beans produced in this method are both sweet and acidic. Post the processing the coffee is graded and stored. Roasting and Grinding Coffee beans are roasted between 180-250 °C from 7-20 mins releasing carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water. The beans lose weight and expand under the roasting process. Roasting gives the aroma to the coffee. Overroasting kills the flavour which is done in the case of Robusta beans to remove the strong coffee flavour. The old method was to roast coffee beans in a rotating metal cylinder above a source of heat. Modern method uses hot air to roast the beans. Rotation ensures even roasting. Grinding is either done before packaging or done by the consumer depending on the brew method involved. We use a French Press, hence coarsely ground coffee is what purchase. Packaging and Brewing Coffee needs to be sealed airtight to prevent moisture from reaching it. Modern methods use inert gas and aluminium or polyethene compounds. Different methods of brewing: French Press Pour over Moka Pot Aeropress Cold brewing Espresso Instant coffee is a soluble coffee concentrate which does not need to be brewed but the flavour is usually inferior to brewed coffee. Kopi Luwak (Civet coffee). Decaf For people who do not tolerate caffeine, it is removed from the coffee using chemical solvents, carbon filtering or carbon dioxide extraction. Caffeine is extracted just before roasting. The chemical agent is either used to treat the beans directly or the water-based solution in which the beans are soaked. Swiss water process is used to get more flavourful beans. The first batch of beans are processed in hot water and that water is used for washing the next bath of the beans. 100% decaf is not a possibility. Our favourite coffee makers/shops Please note that this is not an endorsement, we just love their coffee that we want everyone to know about them :wink:. Coffee Mechanics The Roastery Third Wave Roasters Blue Tokai Flying Squirrel Sources Kickass Facts ListVerse Image: Vishnu’s 500px

World runs on coffee Coffee is one of the most popular beverages on the planet alongside water and tea. It is the second most traded commodity after oil. Coffee has also given rise to a culture of coffee shops or coffee houses which seems to be a recent phenomenon. But are they really a thing of 21st century or do they have some history? Let’s find out. Beverage of choice Coffee is a magical drink of choice. Its ever-increasing popularity can be attributed to its versatility and of course Caffeine the magic alkaloid that gives you bliss as you sip your coffee down. The coffee plant originated in Africa Two different variety of Coffee: Arabica: The more popular and expensive variety, this is considered to be milder and more flavourful. The bean is flatter and elongated and requires a cool sub-tropical climate. Typically grows around the elevation ranging from 2000 - 6500 ft where it needs sun, moisture and shade. Largest producers of Arabica are Latin America, Asia, Arabia and East Africa. Robusta: This is cheaper to produce but has almost twice the quantity of caffeine than the Arabica coffee. Robusta beans are rounder and can grow at lower altitudes (sea level - 2000 ft.). Central and Western Africa, South East Asia and Brazil are the leading producers of Robusta. History of Coffee Coffee plants grew in the wild in the area called Kefa or Kaffa in Ethiopia. These plants were taken to Arabia and cultivated around the 15th century. Legend is attributed to a goatherd by the name Kaldi who noticed that his heard started behaving weirdly after eating certain berries. He tasted them and felt ecstatic as well. He made coffee popular according to the legend. Since it was an intoxicating drink, Islam forbade drinking coffee since such drinks are prohibited by Quran. Despite the risk, coffee lovers grew in leaps and bounds within Arabia and drink became popular. This paved way for the creation of “Coffeehouses” called Qahveh Khanehs and gave rise to the coffee house culture. They first appeared in Mecca around the 15th century and were popular places to catch up with friends. Coffee came to Europe around 16th and 17th centuries and spread across Europe. Some countries prohibited coffee stating they are magical potions. Coffee houses became popular in Britain and British colonies by 17th century. Yemen was almost the only supplier of coffee until the close of 17th century. But the popularity of the beverage took it all the way to Java in Indonesia and Americas along with Hawaii (since 1825). By 20th century Brazil became a leading producer and exporter of Coffee. In 19th and 20th centuries, coffee machines came into existence and various new methods of producing coffee came into being. Instant coffee came into popularity and production was perfected post-1950 leading to the increased production of Robusta. Caffeine - the magical ingredient Caffeine is an alkaloid which is present in coffee, tea, cocoa and in some other nuts and berries. It normally is a white powder highly soluble in hot water. Caffeine stimulates central nervous system, heart and kidneys. It is also a mild diuretic (removes urine). Used as an antidote to respiratory depression caused by overdose. Negative effects: Insomnia, anxiety, irritation etc. Positive effects: Increased alertness and improved motor performance. Decaffeinated coffee became popular to control the amount of coffee in the system. Production of coffee Coffee cherries contain coffee beans, usually two. Single beaned berries are called pea beans and are said to be sweeter and flavourful. Beans are separated from the berries and the dried to reduce the moisture content from 65-70% down to 12-13%. Three techniques are used for processing coffee: Dry method: In this process, the berries are placed under the sun on concrete or brick patios. This is the simplest way of processing and is least expensive. Practised in areas with dry and warm climate like Ethiopia and Brazil. The berries are raked to move them around and to prevent fermentation. The process takes few days to around four weeks. Overdrying breaks the coffee and underlying causes fungi and other bacteria attack. Once dried, the coffee beans are separated by machinery. Wet method: This method produces better quality coffee and requires much more sophisticated equipment than the dry method. The skin and the pulp are removed using a pulping machine that uses a rotating drum. The thin layer of pulp that still remains is removed by fermentation that happens over three days as the wet seeds are kept in tanks. Remaining pulp is washed off and the beans are dried under the sun or by passing hot air. Pulped natural process: In this third way of processing, the pulp is removed mechanically but there is no intermediate fermentation and the remaining pulp is removed once the beans dry off. This is a combination of dry and wet techniques. The beans produced in this method are both sweet and acidic. Post the processing the coffee is graded and stored. Roasting and Grinding Coffee beans are roasted between 180-250 °C from 7-20 mins releasing carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water. The beans lose weight and expand under the roasting process. Roasting gives the aroma to the coffee. Overroasting kills the flavour which is done in the case of Robusta beans to remove the strong coffee flavour. The old method was to roast coffee beans in a rotating metal cylinder above a source of heat. Modern method uses hot air to roast the beans. Rotation ensures even roasting. Grinding is either done before packaging or done by the consumer depending on the brew method involved. We use a French Press, hence coarsely ground coffee is what purchase. Packaging and Brewing Coffee needs to be sealed airtight to prevent moisture from reaching it. Modern methods use inert gas and aluminium or polyethene compounds. Different methods of brewing: French Press Pour over Moka Pot Aeropress Cold brewing Espresso Instant coffee is a soluble coffee concentrate which does not need to be brewed but the flavour is usually inferior to brewed coffee. Kopi Luwak (Civet coffee). Decaf For people who do not tolerate caffeine, it is removed from the coffee using chemical solvents, carbon filtering or carbon dioxide extraction. Caffeine is extracted just before roasting. The chemical agent is either used to treat the beans directly or the water-based solution in which the beans are soaked. Swiss water process is used to get more flavourful beans. The first batch of beans are processed in hot water and that water is used for washing the next bath of the beans. 100% decaf is not a possibility. Our favourite coffee makers/shops Please note that this is not an endorsement, we just love their coffee that we want everyone to know about them :wink:. Coffee Mechanics The Roastery Third Wave Roasters Blue Tokai Flying Squirrel Sources Kickass Facts ListVerse Image: Vishnu’s 500px

We talk about the DC Snipers who terrorized the US in 2002.

The DC Sniper was a series of coordinated shooting on civilians at random during October 2002 which were perpetrated by John Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo. Duration: Preliminary shooting: 16 February 2002 - 26 September 2002 Sniper shooting: 02 October 2002 - 24 October 2002 Perpetrators: John Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo Casualty: 17 deaths and 10 injuries Location: Arizona, Maryland, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. Motive: Anger, Greed, Revenge Date apprehended: 24 October 2002 Timeline: Preliminary shooting: 16 February 2002: 21-year-old Keenya Cook shot and killed at Tacoma, Washington. She was the niece of John Allen’s ex-wife’s friend who supported her decision to divorce. 19 March 2002: 60-year-old Jerry Taylor shot and killed while playing golf at Tucson, Arizona. 01 August 2002: 51-year-old John Gaeta shot while changing tires at a parking lot in Hammond, Louisiana. He survives. 05 September 2002: 55-year-old Paul LaRuffa, a pizzeria owner in Clinton, Maryland, shot 6 times but survives. 21 September 2002: 41-year-old Million A. Woldemariam shot dead in Atlanta, Georgia. 52-year-old Claudine Parker, a liquor store clerk, shot dead in Montgomery, Alabama. The killings happen in the span of nineteen hours. 23 September 2002: 45-year-old Hong Im Ballenger shot death in Baton Rouge, Louisiana with a Bushmaster rifle. Sniper Shooting: Location: Montgomery County, Maryland 02 October 2002: A shot 55-year-old through a window of a Michaels craft store in Aspen Hill. No one hurt. One hour later,55 year-old James Martin shot dead at a parking lot in Wheaton. 03 October 2002: 39-year-old James L. Buchanan shot dead at 11411 Rockville Pike near Rockville, Maryland, while mowing grass. 54-year-old part-time taxi driver, Prem Kumar Walekar shot dead at Aspen Hill while pumping gas. 34-year-old babysitter and housekeeper Sarah Ramos killed at 3701 Rossmoor Boulevard at the Leisure World Shopping Center in Norbeck, while seated on a bench reading a book. 25-year-old Lori Ann Lewis-Rivera shot dead while vacuuming her Dodge Caravan at the intersection of Connecticut and Knowles Avenues. 72-year-old Pascal Charlot shot dead while walking on Georgia Avenue at Kalmia Road. All the killing except Pascal Charlot happened in the morning between a space of two hours of time. Location: Virginia and other areas 04 October 2002: 43-year-old homemaker Caroline Seawell shot and wounded at Spotsylvania Mall in Spotsylvania. 07 October 2002: 13-year-old Iran Brown shot and injured as he arrived at the Benjamin Tasker Middle School at 4901 Collington Road in Bowie, Maryland. 09 October 2002: 53-year-old Dean Harold Meyers shot dead while pumping gas at 7203 Sudley Road in Prince William County, Virginia. 11 October 2002: 53-year-old businessman Kenneth Bridges shot dead at Exxon station off Interstate 95 in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. 14 October 2002: 47-year-old Linda Franklin, an FBI intelligence analyst 35-year-old shot dead - in a covered parking lot at Home Depot in Fairfax County, Virginia. 19 October 2002: 37-year-old Jeffrey Hopper shot at State Route 54 in Ashland, Virginia. He survives. 22 October 2002: 35 year old bus driver Conrad Johnson, shot dead at the 14100 block of Grand Pre Road in Aspen Hill. Audio: Passing Over Freestock Audio Footsteps Soundible Sniper Rifle Soundible Image: pixabay

The DC Sniper was a series of coordinated shooting on civilians at random during October 2002 which were perpetrated by John Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo. Duration: Preliminary shooting: 16 February 2002 - 26 September 2002 Sniper shooting: 02 October 2002 - 24 October 2002 Perpetrators: John Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo Casualty: 17 deaths and 10 injuries Location: Arizona, Maryland, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. Motive: Anger, Greed, Revenge Date apprehended: 24 October 2002 Timeline: Preliminary shooting: 16 February 2002: 21-year-old Keenya Cook shot and killed at Tacoma, Washington. She was the niece of John Allen’s ex-wife’s friend who supported her decision to divorce. 19 March 2002: 60-year-old Jerry Taylor shot and killed while playing golf at Tucson, Arizona. 01 August 2002: 51-year-old John Gaeta shot while changing tires at a parking lot in Hammond, Louisiana. He survives. 05 September 2002: 55-year-old Paul LaRuffa, a pizzeria owner in Clinton, Maryland, shot 6 times but survives. 21 September 2002: 41-year-old Million A. Woldemariam shot dead in Atlanta, Georgia. 52-year-old Claudine Parker, a liquor store clerk, shot dead in Montgomery, Alabama. The killings happen in the span of nineteen hours. 23 September 2002: 45-year-old Hong Im Ballenger shot death in Baton Rouge, Louisiana with a Bushmaster rifle. Sniper Shooting: Location: Montgomery County, Maryland 02 October 2002: A shot 55-year-old through a window of a Michaels craft store in Aspen Hill. No one hurt. One hour later,55 year-old James Martin shot dead at a parking lot in Wheaton. 03 October 2002: 39-year-old James L. Buchanan shot dead at 11411 Rockville Pike near Rockville, Maryland, while mowing grass. 54-year-old part-time taxi driver, Prem Kumar Walekar shot dead at Aspen Hill while pumping gas. 34-year-old babysitter and housekeeper Sarah Ramos killed at 3701 Rossmoor Boulevard at the Leisure World Shopping Center in Norbeck, while seated on a bench reading a book. 25-year-old Lori Ann Lewis-Rivera shot dead while vacuuming her Dodge Caravan at the intersection of Connecticut and Knowles Avenues. 72-year-old Pascal Charlot shot dead while walking on Georgia Avenue at Kalmia Road. All the killing except Pascal Charlot happened in the morning between a space of two hours of time. Location: Virginia and other areas 04 October 2002: 43-year-old homemaker Caroline Seawell shot and wounded at Spotsylvania Mall in Spotsylvania. 07 October 2002: 13-year-old Iran Brown shot and injured as he arrived at the Benjamin Tasker Middle School at 4901 Collington Road in Bowie, Maryland. 09 October 2002: 53-year-old Dean Harold Meyers shot dead while pumping gas at 7203 Sudley Road in Prince William County, Virginia. 11 October 2002: 53-year-old businessman Kenneth Bridges shot dead at Exxon station off Interstate 95 in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. 14 October 2002: 47-year-old Linda Franklin, an FBI intelligence analyst 35-year-old shot dead - in a covered parking lot at Home Depot in Fairfax County, Virginia. 19 October 2002: 37-year-old Jeffrey Hopper shot at State Route 54 in Ashland, Virginia. He survives. 22 October 2002: 35 year old bus driver Conrad Johnson, shot dead at the 14100 block of Grand Pre Road in Aspen Hill. Audio: Passing Over Freestock Audio Footsteps Soundible Sniper Rifle Soundible Image: pixabay

Was the world different when dinosaurs lived? We discuss about plate techtonics in this episode

Continental Drift The idea first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and also by Francis Bacon in 1620 mostly due to the apparent similarities in the outlines of the continents. This was the period when maps were surfacing and gave a clearer view of continents. Alfred Wegener further developed it in 1912. Stated the continents are moving away from poles due to the bulge towards the equator. Though these forces exist, they are too weak to push the continental plates. Wagner suggested that continents once were together and then they started moving apart. Supercontinent was called Pangaea which meant entire Earth during the Permian period around 240 million years ago. Tharp-Hezeen Map In 1977, Marie Tharp and Bruce Hazeen along with artist Heinrich Berann produced the first World Ocean Floor Panorama. Tharp worked out of Lamont Geological Observatory at Columbia University. Started using sonar pings to gather data from ocean floor since 1952 to map the ocean floor. Discovered the rift valley down the centre of Atlantic Ocean. The rift extended for more than 40,000 miles and was a proof for the theory of continental drift, which was unpopular in the US at the time. The existence of the rift confirmed in 1959 by Jacques Costeau in New York where he screened a film of the rift valley that he had filmed. Tharp’s hand-drawn diagrams encouraged scientists from US, UK, Canada and other nations to write papers on plate tectonics. NatGeo didn’t care about a project to bring all the maps together so they sought help from US Naval Research. Hazeen died in 1977 and rest of the mapping project was never completed. Only 10-15% of the entire ocean has been mapped and Tharp-Hazeen maps are still relevant. Evidence: Apparent fit of continents Fossil Correlation: Mesasaurus: fossils are found only in the easter coast of South America and Western Coast of Africa Cynognathus: fossils found across Africa and South America Lystrosaurus: fossil across Africa, India and Antartica Glossopteris: fossil across all the southern part of continents including South India. Rocks Correlation Mountain ranges in the eastern US and Western Europe match up Paleo Climate data: Glacial striations. Bituminous coal: Made from compacted plant remains. Forms only in the tropical climate. Could not explain what caused the drift. Plate Tectonics Mid 1900s, built on Wegner’s theory The lithosphere is broken up into seven very large continental and ocean-sized plates, six or seven medium-sized regional plates, and several small ones. They move relative to each other. Plates float on asthenosphere beneath the Mantle which comes under the crust. Continental crust is made of Granite and is thicker and less denser about 2.7 g per cubic cm. Typically upto 40km thick. Oceanic crust is thin and dense made of Basalt. The crust sits on top of Mantle, very rich in Magnesium and iron bearing silicate minerals. Crust and Mantle make up lithosphere. This floats on asthenosphere. Asthenosphere moves due to convection. Boundary between crust and mantle is called Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho after Andrija Mohorovičić. These are defined by seismic studies. Lithosphere includes crust and uppper mantle just below Moho. Heat below the surface causes mantle to lose its rigidity around 100km below the surface. This is the begining of Asthenosphere. At 2900km mantle gives way to outer core and at 5100km, inner core starts. Inner core is further divided into Outer-Inner Core (OIC) and Inner-Inner Core (IIC) distiguished by their North-South and East-West polarity of iron crystals respectively. Earthquakes and volcanoes happen in the region where plates meet, called fault lines. What happens at the plate boundaries? Divergent Margins: Plates moving apart at divergent plate boundary releases pressure which melts the Mantle underneath. Magma created as a result of this moves upwards and cools just below the surface creating new crust. Hence these are also called constructive margins. Continental Rifting: Magma rising up causes the lithosphere to stretch and lift up. This results in rift on the surface of continents. The rift continues until the crust become thin and a new ocean is formed. The rising magma cools down and since it is basalting, forms the basin for the new ocean. Seafloor Spreading: As magma keeps rising, the sea floor starts to spread. New rocks are created on the ocean floor and hence the age of rocks on the seabed are much less than that found on continents. Convegent Margin: Since Earth has a finite surface area, the creation of new crust is balanced out by destructive plate margins or Convergent Margins where the crust sinks into the mantle. When two plates meet, the older one usually subducts below the younger warmer plate. If the convergence happens between oceanic and continental plates, the continental plate being less denser and hence more bouyant, stays on top and the oceanic plate subducts beneath. This results on continental crusts being preserved and oceanic crust being regenerated every few million years. Hence the fossils of deep sea creatures are sometimes found on the surface of continents. When the collision happens between two continental plates, results in the creation of mountain ranges like the Himalayas which formed when the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate and eliminated the ocean in between. Subduction Zones: Subduction happens when lithosphere of around 100km thickness decends into the mantle. This creates earthquake zones along the zone called the Wadati-Benioff zone. Places like Japan lie on these zones and are prone to earthquakes. Transform boundary: plates slide against one another. Earthquakes happen here. San Andreas fault in California. Convergent boundaries: Plates collide. Subduction zone: Continental crust collides with oceanic crust resulting in the sinking of oceaning crust beneath continental crust da ue to the higher density of oceanic crust and results in melting of the crust and forms active volcanoes. This results in earthquakes, volcanoes and deep trenches. Andes mountains. Island Arc: Oceanic crust with Oceanic crust. One of the crust sinks, normally the older rock. Results in volcanoes, trenches. Collision zone: Continental to continentalThe The . Himalayas. The - Island of Cyprus formed athe t boundary of African and Eurasian plates. Divergent boundaries: Plates move away from each other. On land: Rift zone, rock is ripped apart and normally found in the ocean and particularly in East Africa. Active volcanoes and minor earthquakes. Mid ocean: Creates alternating bands of magnetism because of change in Earth’s magentism which is a proof for divergance. Mid Atlantic ridge is an example. Iceland is geologically active mainly due to being on the divergent plates. Image: pixabay

Continental Drift The idea first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and also by Francis Bacon in 1620 mostly due to the apparent similarities in the outlines of the continents. This was the period when maps were surfacing and gave a clearer view of continents. Alfred Wegener further developed it in 1912. Stated the continents are moving away from poles due to the bulge towards the equator. Though these forces exist, they are too weak to push the continental plates. Wagner suggested that continents once were together and then they started moving apart. Supercontinent was called Pangaea which meant entire Earth during the Permian period around 240 million years ago. Tharp-Hezeen Map In 1977, Marie Tharp and Bruce Hazeen along with artist Heinrich Berann produced the first World Ocean Floor Panorama. Tharp worked out of Lamont Geological Observatory at Columbia University. Started using sonar pings to gather data from ocean floor since 1952 to map the ocean floor. Discovered the rift valley down the centre of Atlantic Ocean. The rift extended for more than 40,000 miles and was a proof for the theory of continental drift, which was unpopular in the US at the time. The existence of the rift confirmed in 1959 by Jacques Costeau in New York where he screened a film of the rift valley that he had filmed. Tharp’s hand-drawn diagrams encouraged scientists from US, UK, Canada and other nations to write papers on plate tectonics. NatGeo didn’t care about a project to bring all the maps together so they sought help from US Naval Research. Hazeen died in 1977 and rest of the mapping project was never completed. Only 10-15% of the entire ocean has been mapped and Tharp-Hazeen maps are still relevant. Evidence: Apparent fit of continents Fossil Correlation: Mesasaurus: fossils are found only in the easter coast of South America and Western Coast of Africa Cynognathus: fossils found across Africa and South America Lystrosaurus: fossil across Africa, India and Antartica Glossopteris: fossil across all the southern part of continents including South India. Rocks Correlation Mountain ranges in the eastern US and Western Europe match up Paleo Climate data: Glacial striations. Bituminous coal: Made from compacted plant remains. Forms only in the tropical climate. Could not explain what caused the drift. Plate Tectonics Mid 1900s, built on Wegner’s theory The lithosphere is broken up into seven very large continental and ocean-sized plates, six or seven medium-sized regional plates, and several small ones. They move relative to each other. Plates float on asthenosphere beneath the Mantle which comes under the crust. Continental crust is made of Granite and is thicker and less denser about 2.7 g per cubic cm. Typically upto 40km thick. Oceanic crust is thin and dense made of Basalt. The crust sits on top of Mantle, very rich in Magnesium and iron bearing silicate minerals. Crust and Mantle make up lithosphere. This floats on asthenosphere. Asthenosphere moves due to convection. Boundary between crust and mantle is called Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho after Andrija Mohorovičić. These are defined by seismic studies. Lithosphere includes crust and uppper mantle just below Moho. Heat below the surface causes mantle to lose its rigidity around 100km below the surface. This is the begining of Asthenosphere. At 2900km mantle gives way to outer core and at 5100km, inner core starts. Inner core is further divided into Outer-Inner Core (OIC) and Inner-Inner Core (IIC) distiguished by their North-South and East-West polarity of iron crystals respectively. Earthquakes and volcanoes happen in the region where plates meet, called fault lines. What happens at the plate boundaries? Divergent Margins: Plates moving apart at divergent plate boundary releases pressure which melts the Mantle underneath. Magma created as a result of this moves upwards and cools just below the surface creating new crust. Hence these are also called constructive margins. Continental Rifting: Magma rising up causes the lithosphere to stretch and lift up. This results in rift on the surface of continents. The rift continues until the crust become thin and a new ocean is formed. The rising magma cools down and since it is basalting, forms the basin for the new ocean. Seafloor Spreading: As magma keeps rising, the sea floor starts to spread. New rocks are created on the ocean floor and hence the age of rocks on the seabed are much less than that found on continents. Convegent Margin: Since Earth has a finite surface area, the creation of new crust is balanced out by destructive plate margins or Convergent Margins where the crust sinks into the mantle. When two plates meet, the older one usually subducts below the younger warmer plate. If the convergence happens between oceanic and continental plates, the continental plate being less denser and hence more bouyant, stays on top and the oceanic plate subducts beneath. This results on continental crusts being preserved and oceanic crust being regenerated every few million years. Hence the fossils of deep sea creatures are sometimes found on the surface of continents. When the collision happens between two continental plates, results in the creation of mountain ranges like the Himalayas which formed when the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate and eliminated the ocean in between. Subduction Zones: Subduction happens when lithosphere of around 100km thickness decends into the mantle. This creates earthquake zones along the zone called the Wadati-Benioff zone. Places like Japan lie on these zones and are prone to earthquakes. Transform boundary: plates slide against one another. Earthquakes happen here. San Andreas fault in California. Convergent boundaries: Plates collide. Subduction zone: Continental crust collides with oceanic crust resulting in the sinking of oceaning crust beneath continental crust da ue to the higher density of oceanic crust and results in melting of the crust and forms active volcanoes. This results in earthquakes, volcanoes and deep trenches. Andes mountains. Island Arc: Oceanic crust with Oceanic crust. One of the crust sinks, normally the older rock. Results in volcanoes, trenches. Collision zone: Continental to continentalThe The . Himalayas. The - Island of Cyprus formed athe t boundary of African and Eurasian plates. Divergent boundaries: Plates move away from each other. On land: Rift zone, rock is ripped apart and normally found in the ocean and particularly in East Africa. Active volcanoes and minor earthquakes. Mid ocean: Creates alternating bands of magnetism because of change in Earth’s magentism which is a proof for divergance. Mid Atlantic ridge is an example. Iceland is geologically active mainly due to being on the divergent plates. Image: pixabay

How safe is your data? How are you being tracked, we ramble about that in the pilot of beer-talk

Facebook, Google and privacy In this pilot episode of “Beer-Talk” - a short conversation on current affairs and/or life topics, Vishnu and Shankar discuss online privacy and why Vishnu deleted his Facebook account. The tweet being discussed: Want to freak yourself out? I'm gonna show just how much of your information the likes of Facebook and Google store about you without you even realising it— Dylan Curran (@iamdylancurran) March 24, 2018

Facebook, Google and privacy In this pilot episode of “Beer-Talk” - a short conversation on current affairs and/or life topics, Vishnu and Shankar discuss online privacy and why Vishnu deleted his Facebook account. The tweet being discussed: Want to freak yourself out? I'm gonna show just how much of your information the likes of Facebook and Google store about you without you even realising it— Dylan Curran (@iamdylancurran) March 24, 2018

A look into the famous race to South Pole by a Norweigian and a Brit

The Race to the South Pole Expedition Number One: Leader: Roald Amundsen Expedition Name: Amundsen’s South Pole Expedition Reached on 14 December, 1911 Expedition Number Two: Leader: Robert Falcon Scott Expedition Name: Terra Nova Expedition Reached on 17 January, 1912 Amundsen’s South Pole expedition (1910-1912) ###Key people: (Total 19) Thorvald Nilsen, a navigator who would be second-in-command Hjalmar Fredrik Gjertsen, expedition doctor Kristian Prestrud, a naval officer Oscar Wisting, a naval gunner/amateur veterinarian* Olav Bjaaland, a champion skier who was a skilled carpenter and ski-maker* Helmer Hanssen, a skilled dog driver* Sverre Hassel, a skilled dog driver* Adolf Lindstrøm, the cook Timeline: Had planned for a North Pole expedition Obtained Fridtjof Nansen’s polar exploration ship, Fram Plan disrupted in 1909 when rival explorers, Frederick Cook and Robert E. Peary each claimed to have reached the North Pole He changed his focus to South Pole Uncertain whether he would get the support, he kept the plan to himself up to a month after leaving for the expedition June 1910 - Set out for the expedition with the crew thinking they are embarking on an Arctic drift Reveals the plan to go to Antarctica when Fram left the last port Madeira Telegrams Scott of his intentions to travel south Framheim, the Antarctic Base, at Bay of Whales on the Great Ice Barrier Near disaster false start in August - September (8 September) Proper start in 19 October, 1911 Use of sledge dogs for trouble free travel Discovery of Axel Heiberg Glacier, first exploration of King Edward VII Land Reached South Pole on 15 December, 1911 Reached back at Farheim on 25 January, 1912 Total 52 sledge dogs, 11 survived the expedition The expedition took 99 days and 3,440 km journey Terra Nova Expedition (1910-1913) Key People (Total 65) Edgar Evans, second-in-command Harry Pennell, navigator George Murray Levick, skiing expert Edward L Atkinson, skiing expert Henry Robertson Bowers* Lawrence Oates, an army captain* Edgar Evans, Antarctic veteran* Edward Wilson, chief scientist* George Simpson, meteorologist Herbert Ponting, photographer Timeline: 15 June, 1910 - Terra Nova sailed from Cardiff, Wales Scott tied up with expedition business, joined Terra Nova in South Africa after catching a faster passenger liner Leaves the ship in Melbourne for further business, receives letter from Amundsen Rejoined the ship in New Zealand with additional supplies Met with heavy storms and loss of supplies in the Sea January 1911 - Built a base at Cape Evans (named after Scott’s second-in-command) Campbell’s Eastern party to explore King Edward VII Land, meets Amundsen’s party January 1911 - Start of Depot laying with the One Ton Depay laid 48 kilometers short of its intended location 1911 winter - Hut was separated using packing cases for “officers” and “men” 09 February, 1911 - Campbell’s party became the Northern party and set up camp at Robertson Bay (They could not carry out experiments as per the plan and returned to base came in September 1912) Wester Parties - Conducted two geological expeditions Journey to Cape Crozier in the winter to secure eggs of emperor penguin and to experiment with food rations and equipment before the polar journey 13 September, 1911 - South polar journey plans revealed 24 October, 1911 - The Motor Party left the base 01 November, 1911 - Scott and his party left the base 21 November, 1911 - Scott’s party caught up with the Motor party 03 January, 1912 - Scott chose his party of five (instead of four) - Scott, Wilson, Oates, Bowers and Edgar Evans 09 January, 1912 - Passed Shackleton’s furthest point 16 January, 1912 - Saw Amundsen’s black flag 17 January, 1912 - Reached South Pole (Scott’s entry - “The Pole. Yes, but under very different circumstances from those expected … Great God! This is an awful place and terrible enough for us to have laboured to it without the reward of priority. Well, it is something to have got here”) 18 January, 1912 - Finds Amundsen’s tent, supplies and letter stating they had reached on 16 December, 1911 Returning homewards - Edgar Evans suffering and Lawrence Oates severe frostbite 17 February, 1912 - Edgar Evans dies due to head injuries, frostbite and a hand injury which failed to heal Reached the meet point, but could not find the dog teams, temperature dropped sharply, and the fuel supplies were meagre Low temperature and radiation caused poor surface to pull the sledge, lack of wind made the temperatures even worse, and Oates frostbite reduced the daily average of distance covered to three to five miles down from fifteen 10 March, 1912 - It became evident that the dog teams where not coming Oates sacrifices himself by walking out of his tent towards his death. Last words, “I am just going outside and may be some time.” 20 March, 1912 - Reached 11 miles near to the One Ton Depot but a blizzard stopped them in their tracks 29 March, 1912 - Presumed date of their death and Scott’s last entry - “Every day we have been ready to start for our depot 11 miles away, but outside the door of the tent it remains a scene of whirling drift. I do not think we can hope for any better things now. We shall stick it out to the end, but we are getting weaker, of course, and the end cannot be far. It seems a pity but I do not think I can write more. R. Scott. Last entry. For God’s sake look after our people.” 29 October 1912 - Search party sent to find Scott 12 November 1912 - The tent containing Scott, Wilson, and Bowers found 11 miles south of One Ton Depot 10 February, 1913 - Edward Atkinson and Lieutenant Harry Pennell reached the ports of New Zealand and relayed a message about the fate of Scott’s party. Aftermath Scott hailed a tragic hero which overshadowed Amundsen’s achievements Critics questioned the leadership abilities of Scott The fate of the group said to be the result of many “ifs” with the weather playing the major part Notes Asterisk (*) next to names means those who reached the South Pole Amundsen received help at Argentina from Peter “Don Pedro” Christophersen, a Norwegian expatriate whose brother was Norway’s Minister in Buenos Aires The Musafir Stories Episode mentionedin the beginning: TMS Specials - Conquering Mt. Everest with Satyarup Siddhanta Pixabay